Age-Related Changes in Magnesium Status within
Oil Palm Cultivation in Eastern Amazon
Ismael de Jesus Matos Viégas1, Antonia Erica
Santos de Souza2, Milton Garcia Costa2*, Eric Victor de
Oliveira Ferreira3, Layana Gomes do Nascimento1, Dioclea
Almeida Seabra Silva1 and Cândido Ferreira de Oliveira Neto4
1Capanema
Campus, Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Capanema, Pará, 55146-434,
Brazil
2Department
of Agricultural Sciences, School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences, São
Paulo State University (Unesp), Jaboticabal, São Paulo 14884-900, Brazil
3Capitão
Poço Campus, Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Capitão Poço, Pará
68650-000, Brazil
4Institute
of Agricultural Sciences, Federal Rural University of the Amazon, Belém, Pará
66077-830, Brazil
*For correspondence:
milton.costa@unesp.br
Received 06 January 2024; Accepted 07 March 2024; Published 16 April
2024
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe magnesium (Mg) concentration,
accumulation, and export, as well as Mg use efficiency and nutrient
requirements in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plants of different
ages. For this, an experimental field comprised a completely randomized design
(CRD) with seven treatments of plant ages (from 2nd to 8th
year) was conducted. We technically assessed numerous vegetative and
reproductive components at both plants age. Plant tissue sample were collected
and sent to laboratory for extraction of Mg content. The data were submitted to
the variance analysis (P < 0.05) and to regression model adjustments.
Our results showed that plant age influenced the dynamics of Mg, mainly its
concentrations in the reproductive organs. Mg showed greater accumulation and
export with increasing plant age. The capacity of reuse in senescent tissues
provided greater Mg use efficiency and requirement. Mg should be supplied
according to plant age and the total quantity extracted and recycled as well as
the Mg content in the soil should be considered, besides the quantities
exported. Our insights are essential for the management of Mg fertilization in
oil palm plantations. © 2024 Friends Science Publishers
Keywords: Elaeis
guineensis; Mg immobilization; Mg export; Mg recycling; Mg use
efficiency
Introduction
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) stands as a pivotal oilseed
crop cultivated predominantly in tropical regions across Africa, Asia and Latin
America, with the latter contributing significantly to global oil palm
cultivation due to its ample land availability (Tupaz-Vera et al. 2021;
Viégas et al. 2023c). The oil derived from palm trees holds a global
trade presence and is acknowledged for its indispensability in human nutrition,
offering substantial health benefits (Plyduang et al. 2022). However,
meeting the escalating global demand for oil necessitates high-yielding plants,
thereby emphasizing the pivotal
role of fertilization in augmenting crop yield (Budiman et al. 2021; Viégas et al. 2023a).
Among an array of nutrients essential for oil
palm growth, magnesium (Mg) assumes a crucial role, contributing to chlorophyll
structure, as cofactor in enzymatic activities, and catalyst in protein
synthesis (Prado 2021). Optimal Mg application demonstrates a direct
correlation with increased crop yield and enhanced fruit quality in oil palm
(Tarmizi and Mohd Tayeb 2006). Nevertheless, excessive Mg application presents
a conundrum, potentially resulting in fertilizer wastage and instigating
antagonism with other nutrients, leading to plant toxicity due to excessive Mg
and metabolic disturbances. Conversely, Mg deficiency disrupts photosynthetic
processes (Tiemann et al. 2018), culminating in yield losses. Therefore,
precise monitoring becomes imperative for effective Mg management, ensuring the
plant's nutritional state throughout its growth and development phases.
Furthermore, comprehending Mg's dynamics concerning recycling, immobilization,
and export within distinct agroecosystems becomes quintessential for adequate
fertilization in oil palm plantations.
Recent investigations into magnesium dynamics
within the oil palm ecosystem have notably contributed to refining Mg
fertilization techniques (Oliveira et al. 2018; Matos et al.
2018; Viégas et al. 2019; Behera et al. 2021, 2022; Viégas et
al. 2022, 2024). These studies have not only elucidated Mg requirements in
plants but also recommended optimal Mg supply strategies to bolster crop yield.
Assessing nutrient concentrations and incorporation of dry matter into plant
tissues has been instrumental in determining the necessary nutrient quantities
for rectifying deficiencies (Foster and Chang 1977; Siang et al. 2022).
However, while these studies offer significant insights, the complete
comprehension of Mg dynamics within the oil palm agroecosystem remains limited.
Consequently, further investigations aiming to elucidate Mg recycling rates,
immobilization mechanisms, export dynamics, as well as the potential for Mg
reuse in the agroecosystem are imperative.
Variability of Mg dynamics contingent upon oil
palm tree age is crucial in refining nutrient management practices (Formaglio et
al. 2021). Hence, in-depth investigations into Mg dynamics within oil palm
agroecosystems, encompassing developmental aspects and nutrient export
kinetics, are warranted. This study endeavors to test hypotheses concerning Mg
accumulation in accordance with its requirements and how recycling,
immobilization, and export dynamics impact Mg use efficiency (MgUE) in oil palm
trees of varying ages. Anticipated results aim to furnish comprehensive
insights into magnesium dynamics within oil palm agroecosystems, thereby
facilitating enhanced Mg fertilization management and augmenting the crop yield
potential. In this regard, the objective of the study was to investigate the
dynamics of accumulation, distribution, and usage efficiency of Mg in the
different components of oil palm plants, as well as the modifications induced
in the rates of immobilization, recycling, and exportation within oil palm
agroecosystems.
Materials and Methods
Study site
This investigation was conducted within the experimental grounds of Agropalma
S/A, situated in the municipality of Tailândia, northeastern Pará State, Brazil
(2° 56' 50'' S and 48° 57' 12'' W). This site maintains an average annual
temperature of 26.5°C. Climatically, it falls under Ami (tropical rainy)
classification, exhibiting an average annual precipitation of 2400 mm and a
relative humidity of 84% (Koppen 1918). The soil of this region is typified as
dystrophic yellow Latosol, demonstrating an acidic nature, low inherent
chemical fertility, and a medium-textured composition (Rodrigues et al.
2005). To undertake the chemical and physical profiling of the soil within the
experimental site (0–0.3 m depth), composite samples were procured by amalgamating four individual samples
retrieved from locations interspersed among the rows of oil palm plantations,
corresponding to different plant ages at the time of collection. The specifics
of this soil are presented in
Table 1.
The experimental site was cultivated using the
Tenera hybrid within an equilateral triangle planting system, maintaining a
spacing of 9 m between each plant, resulting in a
total of 143 plants per hectare. Throughout the study duration, fertilizers
detailed in Table 2 were applied, comprising urea (45% N), natural phosphate
phosphine (33% P2O5
and 42% CaO), potassium chloride (60% K2O and 45% Cl), and magnesium
sulfate (11% S and 9% MgO).
Experimental design
The assessment covered oil palm plantations at seven distinct ages,
ranging from the 2nd to the 8th year of growth. This
involved the implementation of Completely Randomized Design (CRD), with four
replications, with each replication represented by a one-hectare commercial
planting area, selecting one plant located at the center of the plot.
Sampling of plant components
To ensure a homogeneous selection, we established specific criteria for
plant sampling: i) robust growth, ii) adequate nourishment, iii) absence of
pests and diseases, and iv) satisfactory yield. Once these initial criteria
were applied, all selected plants underwent measurement of collar circumference
and height, from the base of the stipe to the base of leaf 33, to define the
population's average. These variables guided the selection of individuals
representing the average of the stand population, aimed at minimizing
heterogeneity.
Subsequent to individual selection, one plant
per stand was harvested and dissected into various components, including
petioles, rachis, leaflets, cabbage, stipe, peduncles, arrows, male
inflorescence, spikelets, and fruits. Fresh
samples from these components were collected, weighed, and subsequently dried
in an oven to a constant weight. Dried plant material was then processed using
a knife mill (Willey type). Subsequently, the plant tissue underwent digestion
using the wet method, employing nitric-perchloric acid digestion, and the Mg
concentration was determined via atomic
absorption spectrophotometry (Malavolta et al. 1997).
Tissue Mg analysis
The impact of treatments on each oil palm plant component was assessed
based on Mg concentration, accumulation and export. The accumulated amount was
estimated by considering the Mg concentration in the tissue and the dry matter
of the respective organ. Additionally, immobilized Mg amounts were calculated
as the cumulative amount in the cabbage, stipe, and arrows, while recycled
amounts were estimated based on Mg accumulation in petioles, rachis, leaflets,
and inflorescences.
The range of Mg concentration variation in each
organ across different plant ages was calculated using the arithmetic mean and
standard deviation. The lower limit was determined by subtracting the standard
deviation from the arithmetic means, while the upper limit was established by
adding the standard deviation to the arithmetic means. The amplitude variation
was derived from the ratio of standard deviation to the arithmetic means,
multiplied by 100.
Total Mg requirement was estimated considering a
fertilizer efficiency of 50% (Franzini et al. 2020) and the effective Mg
requirement (Driessen 1986). Additionally, the Mg use efficiency (MgUE) of each
component and the entire plant was computed using the sturdiness quotient (SD)
of dry mass and Mg accumulation (Siddiqi and Glass 1981).
Finally, for each growth stage of the plants,
Mg supply via fertilization was estimated based on soil content, categorized as
≤ 0.5 cmolc dm-3 (low) or above this value also
considering total amounts extracted, recycled, and exported by the palm plants
(Brasil and Cravo 2020), while also considering the
total amounts extracted, recycled, and exported by oil palm plants.
Statistical analysis
The data underwent Shapiro-Wilk's normality test (P > 0.05)
(Royston 1995) and Levene's homogeneity test (P > 0.05) (Gastwirth et
al. 2009). The data were submitted to the variance analysis (F test; P <
0.05) and, when significant, regression models were adjusted according to the
age of the oil palm plantation.
Results
Tissue Mg concentration
The Mg concentrations displayed a quadratic increase until the 8th
year for arrows and male inflorescence (Fig. 1a-b), extending until the 5th
year for peduncle and fruits (Fig. 1c-d). Conversely, spikelets exhibited a
positive linear response with the advancing age of plants (Fig. 1d). However,
leaflets, petioles, rachis, cabbage, and stipe did not exhibit a significant
response (Fig. 1b). Notably, Mg concentrations in vegetative structures
remained relatively stable, specifically in rachis (1.0 g kg-1),
petioles (1.5 g kg-1), and leaflets (2.4 g kg-1). Among
the vegetative organs, cabbage displayed the highest Mg concentrations (7.81 g
kg-1), while in the 7th year of plant age, male
inflorescence exhibited the highest concentration (6.5 g kg-1) among
reproductive organs. Consequently, Mg concentrations varied across plant
organs, with plant age significantly influencing these concentrations across
most components in oil palm. The widest variation (79%) in Mg concentrations
among all oil palm components occurred in the stipe (ranging from 0.65 to 5.64
g kg-1), while the narrowest one (8%) was observed in leaflets
ranging from 2.22 to 2.58 g kg-1 (Table 3).
Tissue Mg accumulation
There existed a discernible relationship between Mg accumulation in both
vegetative and reproductive components of oil palm, exhibiting a linear
response correlated with the plants' cultivation age (Fig. 2a). Notably, the
stipe (278.1 g plant-1) and crown (293.49 g plant-1) demonstrated the highest Mg accumulation during
the 7th and 8th years of
plant age, respectively. Among the reproductive components, a substantial Mg
accumulation (126.19 g plant-1) was observed in bunches during the 8th
year of cultivation. The distribution of Mg accumulation in the crown, bunches,
and male inflorescence exhibited a quadratic response to plant age (Fig. 2b).
Mg distribution exhibited exponential growth until the 6th year of
plant age for bunches and male inflorescence, while a decline in Mg
distribution was noted in the crown concerning plant age. Furthermore, Mg
distribution in the stipe did not show significant variations relative to plant
age.
Regarding Mg accumulation within oil palm components,
a linear relationship was evident for plant age (Fig. 3). The order of Mg
accumulation by components decreased as follows: leaflets > petioles >
fruits > rachis > spikelets > arrows > peduncles > cabbage (Fig.
3a–b). Overall Mg accumulation increased both on a per-plant basis (Fig. 4a)
and per hectare (Fig. 4b), showcasing a percentage increase corresponding to
plant age (Fig. 4c). The highest Mg accumulation was observed during the 8th
year of plant age.
Mg exportation
The age of the plants emerged as a crucial determinant in defining Mg
export values, distinctly explained by positive linear models (Fig. 5a–b).
Notably, older plants exhibited higher Mg export, while younger plants
demonstrated Mg export values close to zero. Among the evaluated components,
bunches displayed the highest Mg export rates (50%), trailed by fruits,
spikelets, and peduncles throughout the entire assessment period (Fig. 5c).
Although peduncles exhibited a behavior akin to bunches, their Mg export
remained notably lower (2.26%). The export of Mg in fruits and spikelets was
elucidated by second-order polynomial models. Fruits exhibited the highest Mg
export during the 4th year of plant age, in contrast to spikelets,
which peaked Mg export solely during the 8th year of cultivation.
Mg content
The Mg contents exhibited a gradual increase throughout the seven years
of plant development (Fig. 6). The highest values for total (103.06 kg ha-1),
immobilized (41.37 kg ha-1), recycled (45.03 kg ha-1),
and exported (18.04 kg ha-1) Mg contents were recorded during the 8th
year of oil palm cultivation. Overall, plant age showcased a more pronounced
response concerning Mg recycling and immobilization compared to the amount of
Mg exported by the oil palm.
Mg requirement
The responses towards Mg requirement were characterized by linear and
positive trends in both total and effective Mg requirements concerning oil palm
age (Fig. 7). The pinnacle of the total Mg requirement (1098 g plant-1)
was reached during the 8th year of cultivation (Fig. 7a).
Conversely, the apex of the effective Mg requirement (534 g plant-1)
was noted during the 7th year of cultivation (Fig. 7b).
Table 1: Soil chemical and physical
characteristics (0–0.3 m) in oil palm plantations at different ages
Feature |
Plant age |
||||||
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
|
pH (CaCl2) |
4.3 |
4.4 |
4.1 |
4 |
4 |
4.3 |
4 |
K* (cmolc
dm-3) |
0.007 |
0.006 |
0.005 |
0.007 |
0.005 |
0.005 |
0.006 |
Ca* (cmolc
dm-3) |
0.07 |
0.07 |
0.09 |
0.08 |
0.07 |
0.07 |
0.06 |
Mg* (cmolc
dm-3) |
0.04 |
0.02 |
0.02 |
0.03 |
0.03 |
0.03 |
0.03 |
Al (cmolc
dm-3) |
0.04 |
0.03 |
0.03 |
0.05 |
0.08 |
0.04 |
0.06 |
H+Al**
(cmolc dm-3) |
0.34 |
0.28 |
0.31 |
0.38 |
0.34 |
0.26 |
0.34 |
SB (cmolc
dm-3) |
0.117 |
0.096 |
0.115 |
0.117 |
0.105 |
0.105 |
0.096 |
P* (mg dm-3) |
4.0 |
6.0 |
5.0 |
6.0 |
6.0 |
6.0 |
8.0 |
V (%) |
24 |
24 |
24 |
22 |
22 |
27 |
20 |
O.M.***
(g dm-3) |
1.6 |
2.3 |
1.5 |
1.9 |
2 |
2.1 |
1.8 |
Coarse
sand (g kg-1) |
450 |
320 |
500 |
370 |
380 |
340 |
510 |
Fine sand
(g kg-1) |
280 |
300 |
190 |
310 |
210 |
320 |
230 |
Silt (g
kg-1) |
40 |
160 |
80 |
100 |
80 |
100 |
60 |
Clay (g
kg-1) |
230 |
220 |
230 |
220 |
330 |
240 |
200 |
*Extracted with ion exchange resin; ** SMP method; ***Colorimetric
method
Fig. 1: Mg concentration in leaflets,
petioles, and rachis (a); cabbage, arrows, and stipe (b); male inflorescence
and peduncles (c); and spikelets and fruits (d) according to the age of oil
palm plantation
MgUE
Table 2: Nutrient levels (g plant-1)
used in oil palm plantations according to plant age and crop yield
Plant age |
Yield (t ha-1) |
Mineral fertilization |
|||||
N |
P2O5 |
K2O |
Mg |
S |
H3BO3 |
||
2 |
- |
35 |
60 |
60 |
- |
24 |
- |
3 |
1.5 |
18 |
77** |
154 |
- |
- |
- |
4 |
7 |
56 |
115 |
300 |
60 |
45 |
- |
5 |
9 |
97 |
336 |
240 |
60 |
45 |
- |
6 |
15 |
135 |
470 |
335 |
77 |
58 |
- |
7 |
19 |
135 |
470 |
335 |
102 |
58 |
50 |
8 |
20 |
160 |
384 |
324 |
68 |
52 |
62 |
**Application of 500 kg ha-1
of phosphine (rock phosphate)
Fig. 2: Mg accumulation in crown,
stipe, bunches, and male inflorescence (a) and percent distribution of Mg in
crown, stipe, bunches, and male inflorescence (b) as a function of age of oil
palm cultivation
Fig. 3: Mg accumulation in leaflets,
petioles, rachis, and cabbage (a) and in fruits, spikelets, arrows, and
peduncles (b) according to the age of oil palm cultivation
The MgUE displayed quadratic responses in the reproductive components of
peduncles and spikelets concerning crop age (Fig. 8a–b). Conversely, other
components exhibited positive linear models relative to the age of the oil palm
(Fig. 8a). Notably, the stipe demonstrated the highest MgUE (98.36 kg² g-1),
whereas cabbage displayed the least efficiency in Mg utilization (0.01 kg² g-1).
Overall MgUE responded quadratically to the years of oil palm cultivation (Fig.
8c), attaining its peak value (240.85 kg² g-1) during the 8th
year of cultivation.
Table 3: Variation of Mg concentrations
in oil palm components
Palm oil
organs |
Mg
concentration (g kg-1) |
Variation
(%) |
Leaflets |
2.22–2.58 |
8 |
Petioles |
1.32–1.77 |
14 |
Rachis |
0.74–1.26 |
26 |
Cabbage |
7.06–8.57 |
10 |
Arrows |
1.53–2.81 |
29 |
Stipe |
0.65–5.64 |
79 |
Male Inflorescence |
3.53–6.30 |
28 |
Peduncles |
0.71–1.22 |
27 |
Spikelets |
0.93–1.53 |
24 |
Fruits |
2.88–3.89 |
15 |
Fig. 4: Total Mg accumulation by plant
(a), by hectare (b), and percentage increase (c) as a function of the age of
oil palm cultivation
Fig. 5: Mg export in peduncles,
spikelets, fruits and bunches by plant (a), by hectare (b), and percentage
distribution (c) as a function of age of oil palm cultivation
Estimates of Mg supply
Total quantities of extracted, recycled, and exported Mg for each year
of plant growth served as a basis for estimating their provision to the oil
palm plantations. Two distinct scenarios were taken into account: i) low soil Mg content (≤ 0.5 cmolc dm-3) and ii)
soil Mg content above 0.5 cmolc dm-3. In the former
scenario, owing to the lower Mg content in the soil, Mg supply was determined
based on the total amount extracted and recycled by the plants. Conversely, in
soils with higher Mg content (> 0.5 cmolc dm-3), Mg
supply was estimated solely based on the exported amount, contingent upon crop
yield. In both scenarios, considering lower or higher soil Mg content, an
average Mg fertilization efficiency of 50% was assumed (Table 4).
Table 4: Estimated plant Mg supply by
fertilizer (kg ha-1) as a function of soil Mg contents and total
amounts extracted, recycled, and exported at each age of oil palm
Plant
age (year) |
Yield
(t
ha-1) |
Mg
applied (kg
ha-1) |
Soil Mg content (≤ 0.5 cmolc dm-3) |
Soil Mg content (> 0.5 cmolc dm-3) |
|||
Total
extraction |
Recycled |
Supply* |
Exported |
Supply** |
|||
2 |
0 |
0.00 |
3.71 |
2.39 |
2.65 |
0.00 |
0.00 |
3 |
1.5 |
0.00 |
10.56 |
6.92 |
7.28 |
0.26 |
0.52 |
4 |
7.0 |
8.58 |
40.78 |
16.30 |
48.96 |
5.33 |
10.67 |
5 |
9.0 |
8.58 |
49.87 |
21.97 |
55.80 |
6.56 |
13.13 |
6 |
15 |
11.01 |
57.92 |
25.64 |
64.55 |
11.27 |
22.53 |
7 |
19 |
14.59 |
95.83 |
40.82 |
110.01 |
13.64 |
27.28 |
8 |
20 |
9.72 |
103.06 |
45.03 |
116.05 |
18.04 |
36.09 |
*Supply = (Total extraction - Recycling) * 2 (average Mg fertilization
efficiency of 50 %). **Supply = Export * 2 (average Mg fertilization efficiency
of 50 %)
Fig. 6: Amounts of immobilized,
recycled, exported, and total Mg as a function of age of oil palm cultivation
Fig. 7: Total Mg requirement (a) and
effective Mg requirement (b) as a function of age of oil palm cultivation
The Mg applied via fertilizer increased with
plant age and proved more substantial in soils with low Mg content compared to
soils with adequate Mg content. For instance, during the 8th year of
plant age with an average yield of 20 t ha-1, estimates suggested an
application of 116 kg ha-1 Mg in a Mg-poor soil and 36 kg ha-1
Mg in soil with sufficient Mg levels. Additionally, in Mg-poor soil, the
recycled Mg quantities significantly contributed to fulfilling plant demands,
consequently reducing the required supply. Notably, during the 2nd
and 8th years of age, the quantities of Mg recycled by oil palm
trees represented 64 and 44% of the total plant demands, respectively.
Discussion
Our findings underscored the significance of plant age in influencing Mg
dynamics in oil palm cultivation. Additionally, Mg dynamics exhibited varying
patterns among different plant components concerning concentration,
accumulation, and export (Fig. 1). Evaluations of Mg concentrations in leaf
components indicated minimal variations over the assessed period (Matos et
al. 2016). This suggested that plants maintained stable nutrient
concentrations in leaves while undergoing development (Behera et al.
2022). Moreover, within leaf components, leaflets exhibited the highest Mg
concentration. This is an anticipated outcome given their role as the most
photosynthetically active tissue within the leaf (Fairhurst 1996; Tiemann et
al. 2018), where Mg plays a pivotal structural role in chlorophyll
formation and acts as an enzyme activator in photosynthesis (Prado 2021; Viégas
et al. 2023d).
Fig. 8: MgUE of leaflets, petioles,
rachis, cabbage, and arrows (a); stipe, male inflorescence, peduncles,
spikelets, and fruits (b); and total (c) as a function of the age of oil palm
cultivation
Regarding
nutritional status, foliar Mg concentrations indicated plants within the
sufficiency range, aligning with findings in the existing literature (Behera et
al. 2019, 2021). For instance, Matos et al. (2016) established Mg
sufficiency ranges at 2.2 to 2.9 g kg-1 for young plants (< 6
years) and 1.9 to 2.5 g kg-1 for adult plants (> 6 years). More
recent studies suggested sufficiency ranges of 2.5 to 4.0 g kg-1 of
Mg in oil palm plants (Veloso et al. 2020).
In vegetative components, cabbage exhibited the highest Mg
concentrations (Fig. 1). Cabbage represents the primary growth plant organ
responsible for producing new tissues such as immature leaves and leaf bases,
thus consistently demanding higher nutrient concentrations (Siang et al.
2022). Among reproductive components, the male inflorescence displayed the
highest Mg concentration (Fig. 1). As Mg is a phloem-mobile nutrient, its
redistribution from vegetative to reproductive components and growing organs
contributed to variations in Mg concentration within the male inflorescence,
reaching its maximum concentration during the 7th year of plant age.
This can be attributed to the larger amounts of Mg applied during fertilization
(Table 2), as nutrient concentration variations often stem from soil nutrient
levels and fertilizer quantities applied (Behera et al. 2016). Soil Mg
contents were notably low across different plant growth ages in this study
(Table 1), enhancing the potential for plant response to nutrient application
(Brasil and Cravo 2020).
Accumulation of nutrients is pivotal in
determining plant nutrient requirements and is intricately linked to the amount
of dry matter (DM) in plant tissues (Siang et al. 2022). An inherent
characteristic of oil palm cultivation is the continuous increase in DM
production, particularly in the initial eight years (Viégas et al. 2001;
Siang et al. 2022), supported by the high yield of palm plants (Table
2). Analyses of Mg accumulation across vegetative and reproductive components
indicated linear increments with plant age. Additionally, oil palm necessitates
substantial Mg amounts, up to 56 kg ha-1 (Tarmizi and Mohd Tayeb
2006; Franzini et al. 2020) to attain higher DM production, particularly
with plant age.
The crown emerged as a pivotal component
contributing to over 70% of Mg distribution in the initial cultivation years
(Fig. 2b). This insight is crucial as leaf nutrient concentrations directly
correlate with oil palm DM production (Behera et al. 2021). Moreover,
plant age significantly influenced Mg export, with older plants exporting the
highest Mg quantities (Fig. 6), mirroring the increase in plant yield potential
with age (Table 2). Notably, bunches (~50%) and fruits (~40%), respectively
constituted the primary plant organs exporting Mg. Mg dynamics in oil palm
plants indicated that immobilized and recycled Mg amounts surpassed the
exported quantity.
The MgUE increased with plant age, suggesting
oil palm plants' capacity to reuse Mg from senescent tissues to meet the
nutritional demands of new tissues. This increase in MgUE influenced oil palm
plants' ability to biosynthesize DM, consequently altering nutrient
accumulation dynamics (Fig. 3, 4). Changes in nutrient accumulation directly
impact Mg recycling, immobilization, and export in oil palm plants, renowned
for high conversion rates of metabolic energy into biomass (Siang et al.
2022; Viégas et al. 2023b). Consequently, oil palms demonstrate an
amplified Mg requirement rate (Fig. 7), necessitating adjustments in Mg
management to ensure an efficient supply and prevent nutritional deficiency.
Our results highlighted an escalating Mg
requirement with plant age (Fig. 8), underscoring the reliance of oil palm
trees on MgUE to reuse nutrients from senescent tissues for the nutritional
needs of new tissues. This study delineates that Mg accumulation intensifies
with plant age, reshaping the dynamics of Mg recycling, immobilization, and
export due to the heightened adoption of MgUE as a strategy to fulfill Mg requirements.
Understanding the total quantities of Mg
extracted, recycled, and exported at each plant age is crucial for effective Mg
supply management via fertilization, especially during the productive phase,
where dosages are recommended based on expected fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yields.
Existing literature suggests an average export of 1 kg ha-1 of Mg
for a yield of 1 t ha-1 of FFB (Franzini et al. 2020).
Considering the highest oil palm yield in this study (20 t ha-1) and
an average fertilizer efficiency of 50%, we recommend 40 kg ha-1 of
Mg for eight-year-old plants, irrespective of soil nutrient content. However,
in Mg-deficient soil (≤ 0.5 cmolc dm-3), the
estimates for Mg supply via fertilization are higher. For instance, during the
8th year of plant age, an application of 116 kg ha-1 of Mg,
equivalent to 811 g plant-1 of Mg at a density of 143 plants ha-1,
is suggested. As observed in this study's soil with low Mg content (Table 1),
the applied Mg amounts fell short of the estimates for Mg supply across all
plant ages (Table 4). This indicated an escalating Mg requirement with
increasing plant age, particularly in Mg-deficient soils.
A study by Oliveira et al. (2018)
assessing a three-year-old oil palm plantation in Mg-poor soil (0.1 cmolc
dm-3) in northeastern Pará State, Brazil, reported the highest yield
(7.5 t ha-1) with a Mg dose of 48 kg ha-1, considering
143 plants ha-1. For Mg-poor soils and a yield of 7.0 t ha-1,
a supply of 49 kg ha-1 of Mg is recommended (Table 4). Thus, in
Mg-deficient soil, the proposal of Mg fertilization based on total plant demand
seems more suitable, encompassing not only exported quantities but overall
plant requirements.
Managing crop residues in oil palm plantations
significantly contributes to Mg recycling, partially fulfilling plant demands.
At eight years of age, 45 kg ha-1 of Mg was recycled, accounting for
44% of the palm tree demand at that age (Table 4). The Mg accumulated in foliar
components is notably recycled through cultural practices like pruning and
organic fertilizer application, enhancing Mg contributions (Henson et al.
2012; Matos et al. 2018). Additionally, cultivating Pueraria
phaseoloides L. between rows in oil palm plantations could further boost Mg
recycling. P. phaseoloides cultivation as a cover plant in oil palm
plantations demonstrated an average cycling of 20.3 kg ha-1 of Mg,
considering plantations aged two to eight years (Viégas et al. 2022).
This information holds significance for efficient Mg fertilization management,
reducing environmental and economic impacts while enabling more informed
decisions for Mg supply in oil palm cultivation.
Conclusion
The dynamic nature of Mg in oil palm plants significantly varied with
plant age, offering invaluable insights to guide nutrient management
strategies. A consistent increase in Mg accumulation and export with plant age
was directly correlated with increased dry matter yield. Older plants exhibit a
remarkable capacity to recycle Mg from senescent tissues, leading to enhanced
MgUE and heightened Mg requirements. The management of residues contributed in substantially
meeting the Mg demand of oil palm, supplementing the nutrient cycle within the
plantation. As the plant age advanced, there was an escalating need for
increased Mg supply. This demand intensified particularly in Mg-deficient
soils, emphasizing the necessity for heightened Mg replacement. The findings
are pivotal for refining Mg fertilizer management, thereby offering a timely
and informed framework to optimize Mg fertilization strategies and ensuring
optimal plant health and productivity in oil palm plantations.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Agropalma company for the experimental field
support. We also dedicate this work to Professor Ronaldo Ivan Silveira from
ESALQ-USP (in memoriam).
Author Contributions
IJMV conceptualization and methodology to data collection, formal
analysis, writing, review, and editing, as well as overseeing the study. AESS
original draft, actively, participated in the review and editing. MGC, EVOF,
LGN, DASS, and CFON provided substantial input through detailed manuscript
reviews and critical adjustments at different stages of the writing process.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of
any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Ethics Approval
The experimental research was carried out in accordance with the
relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and legislation
and, still, does not involve an endangered species.
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